Herein, we apply a comparative landscape genetic approach to two closely related, geographically proximate, and ecologically similar torrent salamander species (Rhyacotritonidae) across multiple portions of their heterogeneous geographic ranges. Torrent salamanders are endemic to the U.S. Pacific Northwest (Oregon, Washington, and northern California), occurring in small, cool, shaded stream habitats in moist coniferous forests (Sheridan and Olson 2003; Olson and Weaver 2007). They are highly sensitive to desiccation, warm temperatures, and ground disturbances that result in sedimentation of their instream breeding habitats, stressors which have been coincident with past timber harvest practices in the region (Adams and Bury 2002). Adverse effects of timber harvest on torrent salamanders have been reported in multiple studies (Diller and Wallace 1996; Welsh and Lind 1996; Sheridan and Olson 2003; Olson and Weaver 2007; Olson and Burton 2014).
Fst 7 Refined Torrent Fulll
We focus our comparison on the Columbia torrent salamander, Rhyacotriton kezeri, which is endemic to coastal southwest Washington and northwest Oregon and has a restricted geographic range compared to other amphibians (Whitton et al. 2012), and its congener the southern torrent salamander, R. variegatus, which has a somewhat larger yet still restricted range extending south to northern California from their shared range boundary in coastal Oregon (Fig. 1). Both species are of conservation concern (ODFW 2008; CDFW BDB 2011), with R. kezeri proposed for listing under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (WSDOT 2017). Forest disturbances are key concerns for both species, as their ranges are highly managed for wood production in the Pacific Northwest, where timber harvest and associated roads may degrade and fragment stream breeding and upland dispersal habitats (Bury and Corn 1988; Corn and Bury 1989). Other main land uses in these species' ranges include paved roads and rural development. Also, fire has periodically affected forest habitat in these species' ranges. For example, with the 1987 Silver Fire Complex (566 km2) and 2002 Biscuit Fire (2000 km2) in the R. variegatus range in Oregon, and four fires from 1933 to 1951 collectively known as the Tillamook Burn (1400 km2) in the R. kezeri range in Oregon. Approximately 28% of the historical area of old-growth conifer forest remains in this region of the U.S. as of 2000, which is estimated to be 46,656 km2 (Strittholt et al. 2006). More recently, climate change projections have raised concerns for R. variegatus, as its southern and interior distribution may be limited by historically warm, dry climates that may become warmer and dryer in the future (Bury 2015). A comparative landscape genetic study of R. kezeri and R. variegatus may help inform management efforts for these species of concern by revealing landscape-scale associations with genetic structure, which can be used to identify forest landscape planning priorities in the area.
Our comparison of two closely related, ecologically similar species suggests that landscape genetic patterns can be consistent across broad spatial scales, yet ecological differences in habitat characteristics and disturbance can differentially affect landscape genetic structure at small scales. Overall, we determined that land cover and roads are the strongest predictors of genetic distance in these two torrent salamanders, but within the genetic clusters in each species there is variation in the relative importance of these and other variables related to minimizing desiccation. Our results also suggest that decreased genetic connectivity and lower genetic diversity in R. kezeri may be associated with disturbances that reduce forest cover, however, similar patterns of forest fragmentation were found in the northern portion of the study areas for both species. Forest cover can be affected by timber harvest, other land uses, landslides, and wildfire, and in the area analyzed, timber harvest is the most pervasive disturbance to landscape-scale forest cover (Nickerson et al. 2011). Given the smaller geographic range of R. kezeri compared to R. variegatus, the effects of fragmentation in a large proportion of this area may have stronger negative effects on observed genetic diversity. Furthermore, the specific landscape context, variation in degree of human development, biotic interactions, or evolutionary history may play a role in shaping genetic diversity. 2ff7e9595c
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